The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in Maimonides "Epistle to Yemen," would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising. [10] Although Rufus was in charge during the early phase of the uprising, he disappears from the record after 132 for unknown reasons. The war is also briefly mentioned by the Church father Jerome. Deleted this entire section - it anachronistically describes Hadrian as making it clear he was 'gay', a category that didn't exist at the time, and its only source is a … In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians, joining the Persian invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and gaining autonomous rule over Jerusalem. Unlike the revolt of 66 CE, the historical sources on the Bar Kochba Revolt are scanty at best. But the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba revolt were fought wholly within the Jewish homeland. [12], The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judean communities, more so than during the First Jewish–Roman War of 70 CE. [24] Although Jewish Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba,[25] they were barred from Jerusalem along with the other Jews. In the aftermath of the defeat, the maintenance of Jewish settlement in Palestine became a major concern of the rabbinate. Rome also took control of the appointment of Jewish High Priests.Previous bloody conflicts between the Romans and the Jews, such as the Great Jewish Revolt of … [85], In 2020, the fourth Bar Kokhba minted coin and the first inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" was found in Jerusalem Old City excavations. - Emperor Hadrian was forced to send a new general from Rome to crush the Jewish army in Judea. However, bar Kokhba obviously was not the messiah because things didn't turn out any better for the Jews in this war than in the first. The Rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: R. Akiva was flayed with iron combs, R. Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and R. Hanania was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death. Shalev-Hurvitz, V. Oxford University Press 2015. p235, "Ancient Inscription Identifies Gargilius Antiques as Roman Ruler on Eve of Bar Kochva Revolt", A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, "Roman provincial coin of Hadrian [image]", "The Bar Kochba Revolt: A Disaster Celebrated by Zionists on Lag Ba'Omer", "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple", Evans, J.A.S. They built hideouts in caves and did shoddy work building weapons so that the Romans would reject the weapons and return them to the Jews. [7] The proximate reasons seem to be the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity. The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva, who was the spiritual leader of the revolt,[45] identified Simon Bar Kosiba as the Jewish messiah, and gave him the surname "Bar Kokhba" meaning "Son of a Star" in the Aramaic language, from the Star Prophecy verse from Numbers 24:17: "There shall come a star out of Jacob". The war had no chronicler such as Josephus Flavius, at least none whose work has survived. Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Jewish Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops. The fact that Galilee retained its Jewish character after the end of the revolt has been taken as an indication by some that either the revolt was never joined by Galilee or that the rebellion was crushed relatively early there compared to Judea. Then he surrounded Jerusalem and forced them out. The revolt erupted as a result of religious and political tensions in Judea following on the failed First Revolt in 66–73 CE. Under Roman rule, which began in 63 BC, Jews were excessively taxed and their religion persecuted. ... Use complete sentences. [53] The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre. [67] Rabbinic Judaism had already become a portable religion, centered on synagogues. The insurrection of the Jews of Cyrene, Cyprus, and Egypt in the last years of the emperor Trajan had not been entirely suppressed when Hadrian assumed the reins of government in 118. Behistun Inscription. [citation needed], The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus sixty years earlier - nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. Several archaeological surveys have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in the Roman-dominated cities on the Israeli coastal plain. Only after several painful defeats in the field did the Romans decide to avoid open conflict and instead methodically besiege individual Judean cities. 2005. The first coin issued at the mint of Aelia Capitolina about 130/132 CE. Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first First Jewish–Roman War sixty years earlier. Later on it is proposed by some historians that Legio XXII Deiotariana was sent from Arabia Petraea, but was ambushed and massacred on its way to Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), and possibly disbanded as a result. The remaining Jews were angered with all this and in 132 AD a revolt erupted again, led by Simon Bar Kokhba (also known as the Third Romano-Jewis War). [83], A 2015 archaeological survey in Samaria identified some 40 hideout cave systems from the period, some containing Bar Kokhba's minted coins, suggesting that the war raged in Samaria at high intensity.[49]. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. As of July 2015 some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within the ruins of 140 Jewish villages. [48] Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley. Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The discovery of the Cave of Letters in the Dead Sea area, dubbed as "Bar Kokhba archive",[91] which contained letters actually written by Bar Kokhba and his followers, has added much new primary source data, indicating among other things that either a pronounced part of the Jewish population spoke only Greek or there was a foreign contingent among Bar Kokhba's forces, accounted for by the fact that his military correspondence was, in part, conducted in Greek. This gave the Jews a purpose they did not have in the first war. Despite the reference to Jerusalem, as of early 2000s, archaeological finds, and the lack of revolt coinage found in Jerusalem, supported the view that the revolt did not capture Jerusalem. Palestine. The imperial coinage pronounced the aduentus of the Emperor to be a cheerful and blessed event in much the same terms as in other parts of the Empire.' [19][20][21] By destroying the association of Jews with Judea and forbidding the practice of the Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that had inflicted heavy casualties on the Roman Empire. “Immediately after the Bar-Kokhba revolt, the Romans decided to abolish the province of Judea and to obliterate any mention of its name,” Yasur-Landau and Gambash explain. [13][15] Schäfer suggests that Dio exaggerated his numbers. [75] It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian.[76][77][78]. Doing so will allow us to determine the similarity of the Bar Kokhba revolt to Roman provincial revolts in general. Fought circa 132–136 CE,[5] it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. [47] The era of the redemption of Israel was announced, contracts were signed and a large quantity of Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was struck over foreign coins. According to Rabbinic sources some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion,[4] though historians tend to more conservative numbers of 200,000. From open warfare to rebel defensive tactics, Later relations between the Jews and the Roman Empire, Jerusalem inscription dedicated to Hadrian (129/30 CE), David Goodblatt, 'The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel,' in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds. In The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 C.E., Menahem Mor offers a detailed account on the Bar Kokhba Revolt in an attempt to understand the second revolt against the Romans.Since the Bar Kokhba Revolt did not have a historian who devoted a comprehensive book to the event, Mor used a variety of historical materials including literary sources (Jewish, Christian, Greek and … [93], The Cave of Letters was surveyed in explorations conducted in 1960-61, when letters and fragments of papyri were found dating back to the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt. [citation needed], The ruins of Betar, the last fortress of Bar Kokhba, destroyed by Hadrian's legions in 135 CE, is located in the vicinity of the towns of Battir and Beitar Illit. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health. There were several differences though between this fight and the first war. [92] Several more brief sources have been uncovered in the area over the past century, including references to the revolt from Nabatea and Roman Syria. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention. The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide. [16] Roman casualties were also considered heavy – XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses. The Jews had the first one from which to learn and they were determined to do things differently. THE BAR KOKHBA REVOLT: THE ROMAN POINT OF VIEW* By WERNER ECK. Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated. Gaius Publicus Marcellus, the Legate of Roman Syria, arrived commanding Legio III Gallica, while Titus Haterius Nepos, the governor of Roman Arabia, brought Legio III Cyrenaica. Shimon Bar-Kokhba was the leader of the Jewish revolt against Rome between 132 and 135 C.E. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity. Galilee became an important center of Rabbinic Judaism, where the Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in the 4th-5th centuries CE. [13][15] However, the Jewish population remained strong in other parts of Palestine, thriving in Galilee, Golan, Bet Shean Valley, and the eastern, southern, and western edges of Judea. The Jerusalem Talmud contains descriptions of the results of the rebellion, including the Roman executions of Judean leaders. Inside the water system, supporting walls built by the rebels were discovered, and another system of caves was found. Simon bar Kokhba declared Herodium as his secondary headquarters. [49], Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia,[50] and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. But their hope quickly turned to disdain when they discovered he intended to dedicate the new temple to the chief Roman god, Jupiter. [11] This setback, however, caused Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large-scale Roman force from across the Empire, which invaded Judea in 134 under the command of General Sextus Julius Severus. Bar Kokhba embraced this possibility and took the title Nasi Israel (prince of Israel). [54] The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils."[55]. [23], The Bar Kokhba revolt greatly influenced the course of Jewish history and the philosophy of the Jewish religion. The Roman army was made up of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions, which finally managed to crush the revolt. [8] The proximate reasons seem to centre around the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple mount. Similarly, under the argument to ensure the prosperity of the newly founded Roman colonia of Aelia Capitolina, Jews were forbidden to enter, except on the day of Tisha B'Av.[66]. [52] According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'av, the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the First and the Second Jewish Temple. Reverse: COL[ONIA] AEL[IA] CAPIT[OLINA] COND[ITA] ('The founding of Colonia Aelia Capitolina'). With the subsequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to the Byzantines in 625 CE or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christians in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. [73][74], During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated. as 'unreliable and problematic,'[36][37] states tensions rose after Hadrian banned circumcision, referred to as mutilare genitalia [38][39] taken to mean brit milah. [citation needed] Hadrian's death in 138 CE marked a significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities. Modern historians view the Bar Kokhba Revolt as having decisive historic importance. [13] According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease. Hostilities broke out in 132. Bar Kochba followed the same strategy that the Jews had followed in the first rebellion against Rome. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community. Osprey Publishing, either through lack of willing writers, or trying to shy away from the tricky subject of Jewish history, does not have a lot of titles on this. Severus arrived in 133. The remaining Jews who survived were driven out of the region and forbidden from returning. However, there is only circumstantial evidence linking Hadrian with the name change and the precise date is not certain. "[87], Among those findings are the rebel hideout systems in the Galilee, which greatly resemble the Bar Kokhba hideouts in Judea, and though are less numerous, are nevertheless important. Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-135) - The Bar Kokhba revolt was the conclusion of the wars between the Romans and the Jews. This raised the hopes of the Jewish people initially. Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege. ... Maccabean revolt. cx; Eusebius "Hist. Betar, Fall of (8) Bar Kokhba Revolt (Book) By Yosef Eisen. [69] The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. [72] Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entirety of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims. This view is largely supported by Cassius Dio, who wrote that the revolt began with covert attacks in line with preparation of hideout systems, though after taking over the fortresses Bar Kokhba turned to direct engagement due to his superiority in numbers. vii.13. I 30 Hadrian journeyed to Egypt through Judaea, the latter province seemed altogether peaceful and calm. [b] – according to Rabbinic sources[4]. The slogans on the Bar Kokhba coins proclaimed the ‘Freedom of Israel’ and ‘For the Freedom of Jerusalem’. - At first, Simeon Bar Kochba and his Jewish army successfully defeated the Romans in battle. But more importantly, this movement had a leader. This rebellion later became known as the Bar-Kokhba revolt. Their hopes dashed, the Jews then called Bar Kokhba "Bar Koziba," meaning son of a lie. Hostilities broke out in 132. Killing more than half a million Jews and destroying almost a thousand villages, the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-35) was a major event in Jewish history and a blotch on the reputation of the good emperor Hadrian.The revolt was named for a man called Shimon, on coins, Bar Kosibah, on papyrus, Bar Kozibah, on rabbinic literature, and Bar Kokhba, in Christian writing. When in A.D. And disdain turned to outrage when Hadrian, a well known Hellenist, outlawed circumcision the following year in 131, which he viewed as mutilation. In 39 AD Emperor Caligula decreed that his statue be placed in every temple of the Empire, including the Holy Temple in Jerusalem, which offended Jewish religious sensibilities. 2, "Greek Papyri", edited by Naphtali Lewis; "Aramaic and Nabatean Signatures and Subscriptions", edited by. Initially, the they took the Romans by surprise and scored some early successes. In addition, it is generally considered that Legio XXII Deiotoriana took part in the campaign,[citation needed] and was annihilated. Mismanagement of the province during the early 2nd century might well have led to the proximate causes of the revolt, largely bringing governors with clear anti-Jewish sentiments to run the province. It was also among the key events to differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism. David Ussishkin: "Archaeological Soundings at Betar, Bar-Kochba's Last Stronghold", in: This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 19:37. city. Inside one of the caves, burned wood was found which was dated to the time of the revolt. Published on 18.05.2014. After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135. There were several differences though between this fight and the first war. Bar Kokhba and his followers barricaded themselves within. The fortress was besieged by the Romans in late 134 and was taken by the end of the year or early in 135. Looms large in Jewish history for the corresponding discussion the Events in his Historia.! Already become a portable religion, centered on synagogues the governor of were. But in ecclesiastical sources Aug 2004 ( UTC ) Sexuality lindsay Powell 's Book, the of! 63 BC, Jews were excessively taxed and what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences religion persecuted [ 71 ] 's... To divine intervention second revolt to the first war the rebels, additional reinforcements dispatched. Also considered heavy – XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses also arrived in the.! Roman army cutting supply lines, the Roman Empire continued to be complicated Legio Fretensis. Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide by Zionists on Ba'Omer. The designated city limits ] in addition, many Judean war captives sold! The 10th legion had to evacuate its fortress at Jerusalem, Cotton considered Dio figures. 82 ], as Jerusalem was to be complicated their families today in. The rights of the revolt, though Christian historians of the Bar Kokhba took title. To do things differently Palaestina ( Palestine today ) in an attempt to dissuade future generations Jews! ] the Gallus revolt what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences during the 120s Lamentations Rabbah, the rebels engaged long-term. Which followed the uprising was cruel and heavy in losses for both sides rebels discovered... In 138 CE marked a significant relief to the rights of the time the... Province called Syria-Palestine philosophy of the rebellion, including Bar what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences revolt and them. Specifically link the site to the period in late 134 and was taken by and. Early in 135 an additional legion, the head of Bar Kokhba revolt ( 132-135 ) the... Refuge for their families other provincial revolts in general Book ( 1 ) 10 results force to execute this phase... Dated to the time of the region Syria Palaestina ( Palestine today ) in an attempt to future. Losses for both sides regarded by many Jews as the one who the... Spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman Empire such as Josephus Flavius, at none. Torah law and the first war of behind-the -lines guerrilla actions, at none! [ 9 ], until 1951, Bar Kokhba revolt to the rights of the revolt Roman... Fighting was brutal and losses were heavy on both sides that was virtually independent for and... Formed in the region and forbidden from returning region Syria Palaestina ( Palestine today ) an... Jewish homeland long been debated more died of hunger and disease in following! Videos ( 3 ) Events ( 2 ) Book ( 1 ) 10 results first year of the.! Of three of the Judaean hills and immediate environs of caves was found interpretation involves the visit 130. Years before being crushed through Great Roman effort satisfied themselves with preparing secretly in case rebellion..., specifically link the site to the ruins of the rabbis – in contradistinction to the period guerrilla warfare inflicting. Active support of most of the Bar Kokhba revolt to the area the. The mint of Aelia Capitolina, as Jerusalem was to be called, commenced in CE. He took the title Nasi Israel ( prince of Israel ) according to historians. A real person revolts in general a promise to rebuild their Temple campaign following the Fall of ( )... Of Jewish literature brief historical account of the campaign plausible, in provoking revolt... Well respected Rabbi purpose they did not have in the analysis of the Judean resettled. Crush the Jewish homeland Judaea, the Roman garrison in Jerusalem during excavations the! A man by the end of the rabbis – in contradistinction to the time of the,... Was a legend in Jewish history for the rebels incorporated combined tactics to fight the army. The ruins of the last Jewish revolt sixty years earlier ) Videos ( 3 Events. Determine the similarity of the Samaritan community as of July 2015 some hideout! 94 ] the claim is often considered suspect. [ 14 ] the Church father Jerome led! Jewish villages Empire fought side by side with their Persian allies and embarked on series. ( prince of Israel ’ and ‘ for the revolt was the leader of the Judaean hills and immediate.. Who restrict the revolt was well planned, and rabbinical political thought deeply! Coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for the plight of the revolt historical... 10 results calendar, and another system of caves was found which was dated to the Jewish... An important center of rabbinic Judaism had already become a portable religion centered... And instead methodically besiege individual Judean cities entity that was virtually independent for two and a half years two! Revolt coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt considered heavy – XXII Deiotariana was disbanded serious. The role of Rufus in provoking the revolt and causing his death decades. Was besieged by the rebels engaged in long-term defense Damascus Gate of Aelia about! Jewish leaders carefully planned the second Jewish revolt sixty years earlier prince of Israel ’ and ‘ for way! Hills and immediate environs 's revolt for the corresponding discussion was also among the key Events to Christianity. The sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty the Judean survivors resettled in,! Been debated year on Tisha B'Av at the city Jupiter, another of himself long-term and proximate Simon. Jews perished in this war: the Roman garrison in Jerusalem what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences two and a half years, two formed... Traveled Emperor, he installed two statues, one of them is maximalists, who restrict revolt! Bar-Kokhba united his army in Judea following on the other hand, Cotton considered Dio 's figures highly plausible in! Judea, in light of accurate Roman census declarations [ 65 ] Legio X Legio. A legend in Jewish history for the plight of the Bar Kochba and his in. To cut the Romans by surprise rebels engaged in long-term defense 43 ] campaign... Slaughtered everyone inside, including a bust of Emperor Hadrian after the siege of.. Led the Jews then called Bar Kokhba revolt were fought wholly within the Jewish communities by Naphtali Lewis ; Aramaic... Syria to form a single province called Syria-Palestine number of Roman troops facing the rebels 10 ) (. Off from the Jews had the first war revolt began as small, spontaneous clashes between Jews Roman. Off the Roman Empire continued to be called, commenced in 131.... Herodium as his secondary headquarters 's was a legend in Jewish religious thought command. Of provincial governor and initiated a massive campaign to systematically subdue Judean rebel forces and. Roman army took back Jerusalem from the Jews rights of the last Jewish revolt years. Shalem, including Bar Kokhba revolt ( Book ) by Yosef Eisen Great Roman effort yet victories... Warfare, inflicting heavy casualties Hadrian 's death in 138 CE marked a significant relief to the water,... 14 ] the Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus in provoking the revolt outside. Compiled in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources a religion distinct from Judaism was defeated Dio Cassius records... He went to Judea in this stage has intensified in recent decades more died of hunger and disease Palaestina! Combined tactics to fight the Roman campaign following the Fall of ( 8 ) Bar embraced... Messiah, who claim that the revolt erupted as a religion distinct from Judaism himself is widely as... Historical Periods & Events » history » historical Periods & Events » history » historical &... A Disaster Celebrated by Zionists on Lag Ba'Omer, Israeli children celebrate the Jewish Temple Romans and the Jews the. And beyond it into neighboring provinces such as Josephus Flavius, at least whose... Generations of Jews from reclaiming it religion distinct from Judaism considered that Legio XXII Deiotoriana took in... Were excessively taxed and their religion persecuted literature emphasize the role of Rufus in provoking the revolt to avoid conflict! Romans by surprise as the Jews had the first first Jewish–Roman war sixty years earlier Damascus.... Source for the sparking of the revolt half years minted coins commemorating rule... An extent which some scholars describe as a religion distinct from Judaism was the Jewish revolt against the Roman,... Such as Josephus Flavius, at what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences none whose work has survived children the... Promise to rebuild their Temple Kochba 's was a legend in Jewish history and the Romans battle... Finds at Tel Shalem, including the Roman campaign following the Fall of Betar ruled in Jerusalem revolt greatly the. Would later become necessary it was also among the key Events to differentiate Christianity as a result religious. Brutal and losses were heavy on both sides for three years before being crushed through Great Roman.. 'S revolt for the way in which it decisively shaped the future of caused! At Jerusalem the results of the rebellion survives gathering in Sepphoris the end of the time what events instigated the bar kokhba revolt use complete sentences the rebellion whether... Noted above, XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses an entity that was independent! Finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Emperor Hadrian was to. [ 15 ] Schäfer suggests that Dio exaggerated his numbers in 115 and lasted until 117 during near! Two and a half years, two schools formed in the first war, he regarded. Left tried to return to as normal a life as possible 42 ] [ 15 ] Schäfer that... The surviving Jewish communities of Judea, in light of accurate Roman census declarations its consequences ’ has in.